Factors influencing architecture and vernacular architecture
Factors influencing architecture and vernacular architecture
Factors that affect architectural design
Each project has a different set of requirements, limitations, challenges, and opportunities that affect a project’s cultural, environmental, technological, and aesthetic contexts. The 10 factors presented below are among the most influential.
CLIENT
Some clients have a clear idea of a program, budget, and other project objectives, including the final appearance of the building. Others look to their architect to help them define the project objectives and to design a building that meets those objectives. In both cases the effectiveness of the relationship between client and architect is a major factor in making and implementing design decisions throughout the project.
PROGRAM
All clients have a series of aspirations, requirements, and limitations to be met in design. The program provides a place for identifying and delineating these factors and any number of related considerations. The program may be short or long, general or specific, descriptive of needs, or suggestive of solutions.
COMMUNITY CONCERNS
Clients and their architects must adjust their designs to satisfy community groups, neighbors, and public officials. These design adjustments are often ad hoc efforts to meet objections or to gain support rather than direct responses to codified requirements.
CODES AND REGULATIONS
Regulatory constraints on design have increased steadily. Beginning with simple safety requirements and minimal land-use and light-and-air zoning, building codes and regulations have grown into a major force in design that regulates every aspect of design and construction.
CONTEXT AND CLIMATE
Contextual factors include the nature of the surrounding fabric of natural and built elements. Existing patterns and characteristics of this fabric can provide clues or starting points for approaching site development as well as the building design, influencing its configuration and use of materials, colors, and textures. Climate is the measure of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall and other meteorological elements that determine a region's local weather patterns year round. Climate can be affected by an area's local landscape, such as mountain regions or flatlands, as well as by weather. In traditional architecture, which uses only locally sourced resources and materials and does not make use of advanced technology to protect residents from adverse local weather, climate is a major determining factor in what sort of buildings are constructed and how they are built.
SITE
These factors include site size; configuration; topography; geotechnical characteristics; ecological features, including vegetation, wildlife habitats, water elements, and drainage; and accessibility to property.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Building configuration, materials, and systems are rarely arbitrarily chosen and are only partially based on aesthetic criteria. For example, floor-to-floor height required to accommodate structural, mechanical, lighting, and ceiling systems in a cost-effective manner varies significantly from an apartment house to an office building to a research facility. Similarly, office fenestration may be based on one module and housing on another module. In still other cases, these dimensions may be dictated largely by mechanical systems or even by the knowledge and preferences of the local construction industry.
SUSTAINABILITY
In its broadest scope, sustainability refers to the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such ongoing system to continue functioning into the future without being forced into decline through exhaustion or overloading of the key resources on which that system depends.
COST
In most cases, there is a limit to the funds available for construction. Once defined, this limit has a major influence on subsequent design decisions, from building size and configuration to material selection and detailing. Although most budgets are fixed (often by the amount of financing available), others may be flexible. For example, some owners are willing to increase initial budgets to achieve overall life-cycle cost savings.
SCHEDULE
The demands and constraints set by the project schedule may influence how specific issues are explored and considered. For example, an alternative requiring a time-consuming zoning variance may be discarded in favor of one that can keep the project on schedule. Another example may include committing to a final site plan early in the process—before the building footprint on the site plan is fully designed.
Evolution of shelter forms
Shelter, along with food and clothing, is one of Man’s three most essential necessities. Shelter protects people from the weather, shields them against wild animals and insects, and provides a place to rest. The most common form of shelter would be that of housing, however shelter has evolved into many different forms, including (but not limited to) bomb shelters, bus shelters, tents, trailers and even houseboats.
Stone Age
In the earliest prehistoric era, before Man knew how to build shelters, they made use of the natural environment to provide them with shelter. The earliest forms of shelter were those in trees, where it would provide minimal protection against the searing heat of the sun and the cold of the rain. Also, trees protected Man against animals that could not climb up the trees. Another natural form of shelter was the cave, which provided greater protection against inclement weather, though offering less protection against wild animals.
The first man-made shelter was believed to have been made out of stones and tree branches. The stones were placed at the base of the structure to hold the branches in place. Man slowly learned the make simple tools that would allow them to build better structures, and later on these structures gradually evolved in shape and form. Other materials such as huge stone slabs, bones, and even animal hide were used to built the structures, which then provided much more stability, security and comfort. Eventually, earth was taken from the ground and dried in the sun to form clay blocks, leading to the usage of bricks as the basic building block of shelters.
The first man-made shelter was believed to have been made out of stones and tree branches. The stones were placed at the base of the structure to hold the branches in place. Man slowly learned the make simple tools that would allow them to build better structures, and later on these structures gradually evolved in shape and form. Other materials such as huge stone slabs, bones, and even animal hide were used to built the structures, which then provided much more stability, security and comfort. Eventually, earth was taken from the ground and dried in the sun to form clay blocks, leading to the usage of bricks as the basic building block of shelters.
A shelter made from bones.
Ancient Civilizations
Sun-dried bricks.
The ancient Egyptians started building flat-topped houses made out of sun-dried bricks around 3100BC. The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians were constructed using perishable materials such as clay bricks and wood. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures. Famous structures such as the pyramids and temples were built to emphasise the control and power of the Pharaoh.
The idea of sun-dried bricks was improved upon by the Assyrians almost 600 years later, when they discovered that baking bricks in fire made them harder and more durable. They also started glazing bricks to strengthen them and improve their imperviousness to water, which was useful in times of storms.
The ancient Greeks lived in well-made stone houses with slanted roofs that let snow and rain slide off. Most of the walls in Greek structures were built using sun-dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster. In addition to building houses, the Greeks built other forms of shelter such as temples and public buildings, which were dignified and gracious structures built to emphasise the cultural and economic prosperity of their society. Open-air theatres meant for public gatherings as well as cultural performances were also built, with some still standing today.
The Romans improved upon the techniques of the Greeks, and introduced the concept of central heating to tide them thru cold weather. They laid rows of earthenware pipes under the roofs and floors and ran hot water or air through them to heat. Most houses were built around atriums, or a central court, with rooms off the court.
The idea of sun-dried bricks was improved upon by the Assyrians almost 600 years later, when they discovered that baking bricks in fire made them harder and more durable. They also started glazing bricks to strengthen them and improve their imperviousness to water, which was useful in times of storms.
The ancient Greeks lived in well-made stone houses with slanted roofs that let snow and rain slide off. Most of the walls in Greek structures were built using sun-dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster. In addition to building houses, the Greeks built other forms of shelter such as temples and public buildings, which were dignified and gracious structures built to emphasise the cultural and economic prosperity of their society. Open-air theatres meant for public gatherings as well as cultural performances were also built, with some still standing today.
The Romans improved upon the techniques of the Greeks, and introduced the concept of central heating to tide them thru cold weather. They laid rows of earthenware pipes under the roofs and floors and ran hot water or air through them to heat. Most houses were built around atriums, or a central court, with rooms off the court.
Chinese Architecture
The Songyue Pagoda, one of the few surviving sixth-century pagodas, was made of bricks.
Ancient Chinese architecture is based upon three components: the foundation platform, the timber frame, and the decorative roof. In addition, the most fundamental feature of any ancient Chinese shelter would be that of a four-sided rectangular enclosure, with walls formed at right angles to one another. Similar to civilizations elsewhere, the Chinese used packed earth as well as sun-dried clay bricks in their construction of structures. These were typically used within wood frames and formed the foundation of the structure. The roofs and ceilings of the traditional Chinese were constructed without nails, only held together via layering the different pieces in interlocking bracket sets.
From the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD) onwards, the common use of wood in buildings was replaced by the use of stone and bricks. This ensured that the buildings or shelters would last longer and not be as vulnerable to weathering, fires and rotting.
Middle Ages
Vieux-château, built in the 14th century
When the Roman Empire collapsed around AD400 and were overrun by Germans and Scandinavians, the improvements they made in building and construction of shelters were lost for several hundred years. Buildings built by Germans and Scandinavians were supported by frameworks of heavy timber or wood, and spaces between the wood were filled with clay.
Some of these structures developed into fortified castles of the Middle Ages, with thick stonewalls, water filled moats, and drawbridges. Inside the walls, people built stables for horses, barracks for soldiers, shops for making tools and weapons, kitchens, dining halls, and even prisons for enemies captured in wartime.
In the 15th century, Europeans began building half-timbered houses, with stone or brick foundations. Tree trunks are placed at corners of the houses, and strong wooden beams were used to support the house. Then they fastened crossbeams at the top and bottom of the beams and added slanting braces. They covered the walls with lath, or thin wooden strips, plastered with a mixture of clay and straw.
Early Modern Period
The Early Modern Period encompasses the late Renaissance period as well as the Early Industrial Age. Many technological innovations took place in this period, some of which formed the foundation for building shelters in the modern day. Glass was used extensively in this period, and altered the facade and window construction details considerably. This technique was used mostly in the building of grand public structures. Construction in the Renaissance period also focused much on the design and architecture of the building, rather than the materials used for the construction process. This was largely due to the increased appreciation of aesthetics and design, as well as the emancipation of various other art forms, leading to widespread cultural reforms.
The advent of the Early Industrial Period brought about mass production using existing technological processes, as well as an increase in the innovation of technology. The rate of building of shelters increased exponentially following the widespread use of the steam engine, and this allowed iron to be made easily at a large scale. Many different forms could be mass produced in factories, and iron beams soon became the standard support for an entire structure.
Brick was also mass produced in factories by the use of kilns, instead of having to resort to the ancient method of leaving it in the sun to be dried. Thus, the costs of bricks was reduced and led to their extensive use in buildings. The advent of steam and water powered sawmills also allowed wood to be manufactured in a standard size at large scales. Cheap machine-made nails were also available, and the combination of these two materials provided for a quick and cheap form of shelter in the form of balloon framing (a method of wood construction). The low cost and ease of construction made balloon framing highly attractive, as people no longer requirely highly-skilled carpenters and could build their own buildings without a time-consuming learning curve. This was the answer to America's problem of mass immigration at that time.
Contemporary Era
One predominant factor featured in the construction of shelters in the Contemporary Era. Shelters were no longer simple structures, but were towering high-rise buildings that were usually constructed with either concrete or steel. A major innovation was the development of the steel frame as a structural element. Bricks were still used in buildings, and glass has been used extensively to give the building a modern look and feel.
Lightweight concrete also increased the strength of concrete, and the use of pumps to deliver concrete to upper levels meant that concrete could be used in the construction of high-rise buildings as well. Reinforced concrete, where steel rods are combined with concrete, was also developed. The mutlifaceted developments during this period have led to practices that have become the industry standard for the construction of buildings and shelters, and will continue to do so.
Origins and vernacular architecture
Vernacular architecture in Norway.
Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.
It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.
Ancient architecture
In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman military engineer Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.
Asian architecture
Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Vaastu Shastra of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence European architecture of the Medieval period.
The medieval builder
In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not often attributed to specific individuals and the names of architects remain frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period.During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.
Renaissance and the architect
In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.
A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
Early modern and the industrial age
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
Modernism and reaction
Around the turn of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.
Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Falling Water.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles and as the founders of that movement lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its austerity. Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead, Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900s to form a middle ground. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (an ungainly building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.
Architecture today
Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability. The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism, have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession, such as Christopher Alexander, who felt that successful architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.
Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound affect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in greener roof designs, biodegradable materials,and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the 1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.[12] The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. An example of an architecturally innovative green building is the Dynamic Tower which will be powered by wind turbines and solar panels.
Vernacular architecture
Vernacular architecture is a category of architecture based on localized needs and construction materials, and reflecting local traditions. Vernacular architecture tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural, technological, and historical context in which it exists. It has often been dismissed as crude and unrefined, but also has proponents who highlight its importance in current design.
It can be contrasted against polite architecture which is characterised by stylistic elements of design intentionally incorporated for aesthetic purposes which go beyond a building's functional requirements. For the similarities to "traditional architecture" see below.
Etymology
The term vernacular is derived from the Latin vernaculus, meaning "domestic, native, indigenous"; from verna, meaning "native slave" or "home-born slave". The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word.
In linguistics, vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place or group. In architecture, it refers to that type of architecture which is indigenous to a specific time or place (not imported or copied from elsewhere). It is most often applied to residential buildings.
Vernacular and the architect
Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings, states: "...it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of the people, and by the people, but not for the people."
Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling". suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought, but he also stated that it was "for us better worth study than all the highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout Europe".
Many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor. Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated the traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons, but is the first recorded attempt by an architect to address the social and environmental requirements of building users by adopting the methods and forms of the vernacular.
In 1964 the exhibition Architecture Without Architects was put on at the Museum of Modern Art, New York by Bernard Rudofsky. Accompanied by a book of the same title, including black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the exhibition was extremely popular. It was Rudofsky who first made use of the term vernacular in an architectural context, and brought the concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture: "For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous, spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be."
Since the emergence of the term in the 1970s, vernacular considerations have played an increasing part in architectural designs, although individual architects had widely varying opinions of the merits of the vernacular.
Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia. Along with him, modern proponents of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa, a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul Haq, internationally known Bangladeshi architects; Balkrishna Doshi, another Indian, who established the Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck was also a proponent of vernacular architecture. Architects whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be Samuel Mockbee, Christopher Alexander and Paolo Soleri.
Oliver claims that:
As yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and anthropology with aspects of history and geography
Influences on the vernacular
European-influenced log cabin in Bariloche (Patagonia), Argentina. To comply with strict local building codes, every piece of wood cut down from the property must be accounted for in the building of the cabin and related infrastructure, and the same number of trees must be replanted in the vicinity.
Vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have subtly different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same. Despite these variations, every building is subject to the same laws of physics, and hence will demonstrate significant similarities in structural forms.
Climate
One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed. Buildings in cold climates invariably have high thermal mass or significant amounts of insulation. They are usually sealed in order to prevent heat loss, and openings such as windows tend to be small or non-existent. Buildings in warm climates, by contrast, tend to be constructed of lighter materials and to allow significant cross-ventilation through openings in the fabric of the building.
Buildings for a continental climate must be able to cope with significant variations in temperature, and may even be altered by their occupants according to the seasons.
Buildings take different forms depending on precipitation levels in the region – leading to dwellings on stilts in many regions with frequent flooding or rainy monsoon seasons. Flat roofs are rare in areas with high levels of precipitation. Similarly, areas with high winds will lead to specialised buildings able to cope with them, and buildings will be oriented to present minimal area to the direction of prevailing winds.
Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Mediterranean vernacular, and that of much of the Middle East, often includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond; air cooled by water mist and evaporation is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form. Similarly, Northern African vernacular often has very high thermal mass and small windows to keep the occupants cool, and in many cases also includes chimneys, not for fires but to draw air through the internal spaces. Such specialisations are not designed, but learnt by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work.
Culture
The way of life of building occupants, and the way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings.
For example, the family units of several East African ethnic communities live in family compounds, surrounded by marked boundaries, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of the family. In polygamous communities there may be separate dwellings for different wives, and more again for sons who are too old to share space with the women of the family. Social interaction within the family is governed by, and privacy is provided by, the separation between the structures in which family members live. By contrast, in Western Europe, such separation is accomplished inside one dwelling, by dividing the building into separate rooms.
Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs.
Nomadic dwellings
There are many cultures around the world which include some aspect of nomadic life, and they have all developed vernacular solutions for the need for shelter. These all include appropriate responses to climate and customs of their inhabitants, including practicalities of simple construction, and if necessary, transport.
The Inuit people have a number of different forms of shelter appropriate to different seasons and geographical locations, including the igloo (for winter) and the tupiq tent (for summer). The Sami of Northern Europe, who live in climates similar to those experienced by the Inuit, have developed different shelters appropriate to their culture, including the atnaris-kahte tent. The development of different solutions in similar circumstances because of cultural influences is typical of vernacular architecture.
Many nomadic people use materials common in the local environment to construct temporary dwellings, such as the Punan of Sarawak who use palm fronds, or the Ituri Pygmies who use saplings and mongongo leaves to construct domed huts. Other cultures reuse materials, transporting them with them as they move. Examples of this are the tribes of Mongolia, who carry their yurts or gers with them, or the black desert tents of the Qashgai in Iran. Notable in each case is the signicant impact of the availability of materials and the availability of pack animals or other forms of transport on the ultimate form of the shelters.
All the shelters will be adapted to suit the local climate. The Mongolian gers, for example, are versatile enough to be cool in hot continental summers and warm in the sub-zero temperaturs of Mongolian winters, and include a closable ventilation hole at the centre and a chimney for a stove. A ger is typically not often relocated, and is therefore sturdy and secure, including wooden front door and several layers of coverings. A berber tent, by contrast, might be relocated daily, and is much lighter and quicker to erect and dismantle – and because of the climate it is used in, does not need to provide the same degree of protection from the elements.
good info
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